Hui people

Hui حُوِ ذَو
回族 (Huízú)
HuiChineseMuslim3.jpg
Hui people
Total population
10 million[1]
Regions with significant populations
 China
Languages

Chinese languages
Religion

Islam
Related ethnic groups

Dungan, Panthay, Han Chinese,
other Sino-Tibetan peoples
Hui people
Chinese name
Chinese 回族
Russian name
Russian Дунгане
Dunganese name
Dungan Хуэйзў
Xiao'erjing حُوِ ذَو
Romanization Huejzw

The Hui people (Chinese: 回族; pinyin: Huízú, Xiao'erjing: حُوِ ذَو ) are a Chinese ethnic group, typically distinguished by their practice of Islam, and many of whom are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers.

In modern People's Republic of China, the term "Hui people" refers to one of the officially recognized 56 ethnic groups into which Chinese citizens are classified. Under this definition, the Hui people are defined to include all historically Muslim communities in People's Republic of China that are not included in China's other ethnic groups.[2] Since China's Muslims speaking various Turkic, Mongolian, or Iranian languages are all included into those other groups (e.g., Uyghurs, Dongxiang, or Tajiks) the "officially recognized" Hui ethnic group consists predominantly of Chinese speakers.[3] In fact, the "Hui nationality" is unique among China's officially recognized ethnic minorities in that it does not have any particular non-Chinese language associated with it.[4]

Nonetheless, included among the Hui in Chinese census statistics (and not officially recognized as separate ethnic groups) are members of a few small non-Chinese speaking communities. Among them are several thousand Utsuls in southern Hainan province, who speak an Austronesian language (Tsat) related to that of the Cham Muslim minority of Vietnam, and who are said to be descended from Chams who migrated to Hainan.[5] A small Muslim minority among Yunnan's Bai people are classified as Hui as well (even if they are Bai speakers),[6] as are some groups of Tibetan Muslims.[5]

The Hui people are concentrated in Northwestern China (Ningxia, Gansu, Qinghai, Xinjiang), but communities exist across the country, e.g. Beijing, Inner Mongolia, Hebei, Hainan, Yunnan, etc.

Most Hui are similar in culture to Han Chinese with the exception that they practice Islam, and have some distinctive cultural characteristics as a result. For example, as Muslims, they follow Islamic dietary laws and reject the consumption of pork, the most common meat consumed in Chinese culture,[7] and have also given rise to their variation of Chinese cuisine, Chinese Islamic cuisine and Muslim Chinese martial arts. Their mode of dress also differs primarily in that men wear white caps and women wear headscarves or (occasionally) veils, as is the case in most Islamic cultures.

The Hui people are of varied ancestry. Their ancestors include Central Asian, Persian, Han Chinese, and Mongols. Several medieval dynasties, particularly the Tujue (i.e. Turkish)-descended Tang Dynasty and Mongol Yuan Dynasty encouraged immigration from predominantly-Muslim Persia and Central Asia, with both dynasties welcoming traders from these regions and appointing Central Asian officials. In the subsequent centuries, they gradually mixed with Mongols and Han Chinese, and the Hui people were formed. On account of this mixing and long residence in China, the Hui have not retained Central Asian, Persian, or Arabic names, using instead names typical of their Han Chinese neighbors; however, certain names common among the Hui can be understood as Chinese renderings of common Muslim (i.e. Arabic), Persian, and Central Asian names (for instance, "Ma" for "Muhammad").

Contents

Etymology

"Huihui" and "Hui"

The word Huihui (回回), which was the usual generic term for China's Muslims during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, is thought to have its origin in the earlier Huihe (回纥) or Huihu (回纥), which was the name for the Uyghur State of the 8th and 9th century.[8] Although the ancient Uyghurs were neither Muslims nor were very directly related to today's Uyghur people,[8] the name Huihui came to refer to all Muslims, regardless of language or origin, by the time of the Yuan (1271–1368) [9] and Ming Dynasties (1368–1644).[8]

Another, probably unrelated, early use of the word Huihui comes from the History of Liao Dyansty, which mentions Yelü Dashi, the 12th-century founder of the Kara-Khitan Khanate, defeating the Huihui Dashibu (回回大食部) people near Samarkand - apparently, referring to his defeat of the Khwarazm ruler Ahmed Sanjar in 1141.[10] Khwarazm is referred to as Huihuiguo in the Secret History of the Mongols as well.[11]

The widespread and rather generic application of the name "Huihui" in Ming China was attested by foreign visitors as well. Matteo Ricci, the first Jesuit to reach Beijing (1598), noted that "Saracens are everywhere in evidence... their thousands of families are scattered about in nearly every province"[12] Ricci noted that the term Huihui or Hui was applied by Chinese not only to "Saracens" (Muslims) but also to Chinese Jews and supposedly even to Christians.[13] In fact, when the reclusive Wanli Emperor first saw a picture of Ricci and Diego de Pantoja, he supposedly exclaimed, "Hoei, hoei. It is quite evident that they are Saracens", and had to be told by a eunuch that they actually weren't, "because they ate pork".[14]

While Huihui or Hui remained a generic name for all Muslims in Imperial China, specific terms were sometimes used to refer to particular groups - e.g. Chantou Hui ("turbaned Hui") for Uyghurs, Dongxiang Hui and Sala Hui for Dongxiang and Salar people, and sometimes even Han Hui ("Chinese Hui") for the (presumably Chinese-speaking) Muslims more assimilated into the Chinese mainstream society.[15]

A halal (清真) shower house in Linxia City

Under the aegis of the Communist Party in the 1930s the term Hui was defined to indicate only Sinophone Muslims. In 1941, this was clarified by a Communist Party committee comprising ethnic policy researchers in a treatise entitled "On the question of Huihui Ethnicity" (Huihui minzu wenti). This treatise defined the characteristics of the Hui nationality as follows: the Hui or Huihui constitute an ethnic group associated with, but not defined by, the Islamic religion and they are descended primarily from Muslims who migrated to China during the Mongol-founded Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), as distinct from the Uyghur and other Turkic-speaking ethnic groups in Xinjiang. The Nationalist government had recognised all Muslims as one of "the five peoples"—alongside the Manchus, Mongols, Tibetans and Han Chinese—that constituted the Republic of China. The new Communist interpretation of Chinese Muslim ethnicity marked a clear departure from the ethno-religious policies of the Nationalists, and had emerged as a result of the pragmatic application of Stalinist ethnic theory to the conditions of the Chinese revolution.[16]

These days, within the PRC, Huizu and is the standard term for the "Hui nationality" (ethnic group), and Huimin , for "Hui people" or "a Hui person". The traditional expression Huihui, its use now largely restricted to rural areas, would sound quaint, if not outright demeaning, to modern urban Chinese Muslims.[17]

Halal (清真) restaurants offering Northwestern beef lamian can be found throughout the country

A traditional Chinese term for Islam is 回教 (pinyin: Huíjiào, literally "the religion of the Hui"). However, since the early days of the PRC, thanks to the arguments of such Marxist Hui scholars as Bai Shouyi, the standard term for "Islam" within the PRC has become the transliteration 伊斯蘭教 (pinyin: 'Yīsīlán jiào, literally "Islam religion").[18] The more traditional term Huijiao remains in use in Singapore, Taiwan, and other overseas Chinese communities.[19]

Qīngzhēn (清真, literally "pure and true") has also been a popular term for the things Muslim since the Yuan or Ming Dynasty. Dru Gladney suggests that a good translation for it would be Arabic tahára. i.e. "ritual or moral purity"[20] The usual term for a mosque is qīngzhēn sì (清真寺), i.e. "true and pure temple", and qīngzhēn is commonly used to refer to halal eating establishments and bathhouses.

"Dungan"

Hui people everywhere are referred to by Central Asian Turkic speakers and Tajiks as Dungans. This term has a long pedigree as well. The region's historian Joseph Fletcher cites Turkic and Persian manuscripts related to the preaching of the 17th century Kashgarian Sufi master Muhammad Yūsuf (or, possibly, his son Afaq Khoja) inside the Ming Empire (in today's Gansu and/or Qinghai), where the Kashgarian preacher is told to have converted 'ulamā-yi Tunganiyyān (i.e., "Dungan ulema") into Sufism.[21]

In English and German, the ethnonym "Dungan", in various spelling forms, was attested as early as 1830s, typically referring to the Hui people of Xinjiang. For example, James Prinsep in 1835 mentions Muslim "Túngánis" in "Chinese Tartary".[22] The word (mostly in the form "Dungani" or "Tungani", sometimes "Dungens" or "Dungans") acquired some currency in English and other western languages when a number of books in the 1860-70s discussed the Dungan revolt in north-western China.

Later authors continued to use the term Dungan (in various transcriptions) for, specifically, the Hui people of Xinjiang. For example, Owen Lattimore, writing ca. 1940, maintains the terminological distinction between these two related groups: the "T'ungkan" (i.e. Wade-Giles for "Dungan"), described by him as the descendants of the Gansu Hui people resettled in Xinjiang in 17-18th centuries, vs. e.g. the "Gansu Moslems" or generic "Chinese Moslems".[23]

In Russian Empire, the Soviet Union, and its successor countries, the term "Dungans" (дунгане) became the standard name for the descendants of Chinese-speaking Muslims who emigrated to Russian Empire (mostly, today's Kyrgyzstan and south-eastern Kazakhstan in the 1870s and 1880s).[24]

Other terms

In Thailand Chinese Muslims are referred to as Chin Ho, in Myanmar and Yunnan Province, as Panthay.

History

Origins

Hui people praying in Dongguan Mosque, Xining

The Hui Chinese have diverse origins, and many of whom are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers. Some in the southeast coast (Guangdong, Fujian) and in major trade centers elsewhere in China are of mixed local and foreign descent. The foreign element, although greatly diluted, came from Arab (Dashi) and Persian (Bosi) traders, who brought Islam to China. These foreigners settled in China and gradually intermarried into the surrounding population while converting them to Islam, while they in turn assimilated in all aspects of Chinese culture, keeping only their distinctive religion.[25]

A totally different explanation is available for the Hui people of Yunnan and Northwestern China, whose ethnogenesis might be a result of the convergence of large number of Mongol, Turkic, Iranian or other Central Asian settlers in these regions, who were recruited by the Mongol-founded Yuan Dynasty either as officials (the semu, who formed the second-highest stratum in the Yuan Empire's ethnic hierarchy, after the Mongols themselves, but before both northern and southern Chinese) or artisans.[26][27] It was documented that a proportion of the ancestral nomad or military ethnic groups were originally Nestorian Christians many of whom later converted to Islam, while under the Sinicizing pressures of the Ming and Qing Dynasties.

To these days, many Hui people and non-Hui observers say that facial features of some members of their communities make them somewhat distinct from the surrounding Han population, and reflect their Southwest Asian ancestry.[28]

An elderly Hui man.

Southeastern Muslims also have a much longer tradition of synthesizing Confucian teachings with the Sharia and Qur'anic teachings, and were reported to have been contributing to the Confucian officialdom since the Tang period. Among the Northern Hui, on the other hand, there are strong influences of Central Asian Sufi schools such as Kubrawiyya, Qadiriyya, Naqshbandiyya (Khufiyya and Jahriyya) etc. mostly of the Hanafi Madhhab (whereas among the Southeastern communities the Shafi'i Madhhab is more of the norm). Before the "Ihwani" movement, a Chinese variant of the Salafi movement, Northern Hui Sufis were very fond of synthesizing Taoist teachings and martial arts practices with Sufi philosophy.

In early modern times, villages in Northern Chinese Hui areas still bore labels like "Blue-cap Huihui," "Black-cap Huihui," and "White-cap Huihui," betraying their possible Christian, Judaic and Muslim origins, even though the religious practices among North China Hui by then were by and large Islamic. Hui is also used as a catch-all grouping for Islamic Chinese who are not classified under another ethnic group.

Intermarriage with Han Chinese

Intermarriage usually involves a Han chinese woman converting to Islam, or it may involved a Han chinese man converting to Islam to marry a Hui woman. Sometimes extremely rarely, marriage takes place without conversion.

Hui Male marry Han Female

Most common occurrence of intermarriage

Han Male marry Hui Female

During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period(Wudai) (907-960), Chinese emperors preferred to marry Persian women. Chinese from Song Dynasty official families preferred to marry women from Dashi (Arabia).[29]

Of the Han chinese Li family in Quanzhou, Li Nu, the son of Li Lu, visited Hormuz in Persia in 1376, married a Persian or an Arab girl, and brought her back to Quanzhou. He then converted to Islam Li Nu was the ancestor of the Ming Dynasty reformer Li Chih.[30][31][32]

In Henan province, a marriage was recorded between Han boy and Hui girl without the Han converting to Islam, during the Ming dynasty.Two men farmed together an area situated at the edge of their respective village territories. They got along very well and had become good friends. One day the wind rose and a thunderstorm arrived. The two men took shelter in a ditch (gou) of red earth. They talked and agreed to marry their children to each other. One, the Han, had a son, and the other, the Hui, a daughter. Two boys were born of this union. During the war at the end of the Ming dynasty, the two boys were taken to their Hui village and raised as Muslim. Steles in Han and Hui villages record this story and members of the Han and Hui lineange get together in the home village, where there are celebrations around the ancestral temple..[33]

In Hui discourse, marriage between a Hui woman and a Han man is theoretically impossible unless he converts to Islam, which seems presumably unlikely. In fact it is a situation which was observed on many occasions in the towns of Eastern China.[33]

In Gansu province in the 1800s, a Muslim hui woman married into the Han chinese Kong lineage of Dachuan, which was descended from Confucious. The Han chinese groom and his family were only converted to Islam after the marriage by their Muslim relatives.[34]

In 1715 in Yunnan province, many Han chinese descendants of Confucius married Hui women and converted to Islam. Archives on this are stored in Xuanwei city.[35]

Muslim Revolts

During the mid-nineteenth century, a series of civil wars broke out throughout China by various ethnic-lingual groups against the ruling Manchu-Mongol-Han Bannerman and Han Confucians elites. These include the Taiping Rebellion in Southern China (whose leaders were Evangelical Christians of ethnic Han Chinese Hakka and Zhuang background), the Muslims Rebellion in Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai and Ningxia in Northwestern China and Yuannan, and the Miao people Revolt in Hunan and Guizhou. These revolts were supported by European Powers at the beginning but eventually put down by the Manchu government. The Dungan people were descendants of the Muslim rebels who fled to Russian Empire after the rebellion were suppressed by the joint force of Hunan Army led by Zuo Zongtang (左宗棠) with support from local Hui elites.

Population loss during these revolts was staggering. Some have estimated that the population loss in Shaanxi between 1862 and 1879 was as high as 6,220,000, about 44.6% of the original population before the war, of which 5.2 million was due to war. For the Hui, the figure may have been as high as 1.55 million. In 1990, there were only 132,000 Hui in Shaanxi.(Another source from Zuo Zongtang's written records suggests before the revolt there were 4 million muslims in Shanxi (population of Shanxi was 13 million in total), and there were only 50,000 muslims left in Shanxi after the war. The strategy used against muslims in Shanxi was to make the province muslim free by either mass killing or evictions, this is because the Han Chinese regarded Shanxi a Chinese heartland whereas places west of Shanxi such as Gansu and Ningxia are barbaric wasteland. Shanxi Muslims that were spared during the war were force relocated west to provinces such as Gansu, and the Shanxi muslims that were allowed to stay are mainly Xian city muslims who did not participate in the revolt.) [36]

Another revolt erupted in 1895, which was suppressed by loyalist Muslim troops.

Panthays

Panthays form a group of Chinese Muslims in Burma. Some people refer to Panthays as the oldest group of Chinese Muslims in Burma. However, because of intermixing and cultural diffusion the Panthays are not as distinct a group as there once were.

Dungans

Dungan (simplified Chinese: 东干族; traditional Chinese: 東干族; pinyin: Dōnggānzú; Russian: Дунгане) is a term used in territories of the former Soviet Union and in Xinjiang to refer to Chinese-speaking Muslim people. In the censuses of Russia and the former Soviet Central Asia, the Hui are enumerated separately from Chinese, and are labelled as Dungans. In both China and the former Soviet republics where they reside, however, members of this ethnic group call themselves Lao Huihui or Zhongyuanren, not Dungans. Zhongyuan 中原, literally means "The Central Plain," and is the historical name of Shaanxi and Henan provinces. Most Dungans living in the former Soviet Union are descendants of Hui people from Gansu and Shaanxi.

Republic of China and after

Under Kuomintang rule, many Hui gained military and political power by joining the Kuomintang party. The Kuomintang leader Chiang Kai-shek appointed Hui people like Ma Qi, Ma Hongkui, and Ma Hongbin as governors of Qinghai, Ningxia, and Gansu provinces. Bai Chongxi was another Hui general who ruled Guangxi province and was also appointed Kuomintang Minister of National Defence. A further Hui general Ma Fuxiang, became governor of Anhui, Mayor of Qingdao and Chairman of the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission.

The Hui fought against the Japanese in World War II at which time they formed 'Hui Brigades'.[37] The main National Revolutionary Army also had Hui Generals who fought against Japan, including Bai Chongxi, Ma Bufang, Ma Buqing, Ma Hongkui and Ma Hongbin.

Ma Hongbin and his son Ma Dunjing (1906-1972) defected to the Communist party and joined their Hui 81st corps into the People's Liberation Army during the Ningxia Campaign. They became PLA generals.

The Shadian incident that took place in 1975 involved the deaths of many Hui at the hands of the People's Liberation Army.

Islamic Sects

Hanafi Sunni Gedimu

Gedimu(Chinese:格底目 or 格迪目)(Arabic:„ﻢﻴﺪﻘ) or Qadim is the earliest school of Islam in China. It is a Hanafi non-Sufi school of the Sunni tradition. Its supporters are centered around local mosques, which function as relatively independent units. It is numerically the largest Islamic school of thought in China and most common school of Islam among the Hui. Since the introduction of Islam, first during the Tang Dynasty in China, it continued to the Ming Dynasty with no splits. At the end of the Ming and early Qing Dynasty Sufism was introduced to China.

Its members were sometimes extremely hostile to Sufis, Ikhwanis, and Wahhabis, like the Sufi Jahriyya and Yihewani. They engaged in fights and brawls against Sufis and Wahhabis.

Sufi Khafiya

Ma Laichi established the Hua Si (华寺; "Muticolored Mosque") school (menhuan) - the core of the Khufiyya movement in Chinese Islam. The name of the movement - a Chinese form of the Arabic "Khafiyya", i.e. "the silent ones" - refers to its adherents' emphasis on silent dhikr (invocation of God's name). The Khufiyya teachings were characterized by stronger participation in the society, as well as veneration of saints and seeking inspiration at their tombs.

Ma Laichi spent 32 years spreading his teaching among the Muslim Hui and Salar people in Gansu and Qinghai.

The Khuffiya is a Nashqbandi Sufi order.

Khuffiya Sufis were sometimes hostile to the Ikhwan and other Sufis like the Jahriyya and the Xidaotang, engaging in deadly brawls and fights against them. Its members also called the Xidaotang foundeder, Ma Qixi, and infidel.

Sufi Jahriyya

Jahriyya is a menhuan (Sufi order) in China. Founded in the 1760s by Ma Mingxin, it has been active in the late 18th and 19th centuries in the then Gansu Province (also including today's Qinghai and Ningxia), when its followers participated in a number of conflicts with other Muslim groups and in several rebellions against the China's ruling Qing Dynasty. Its members later cooled down, and many of them like Ma Shaowu became loyal to the chinese government, crushing other Muslim rebels like the Uyghurs.

The Jahriya order was founded by the Gansu Chinese-speaking Muslim scholar Ma Mingxin soon after his return to China in 1761, after 16 years of studying in Mecca and Yemen.

Jahriyya is a Naqshbandi]] Sufi order.

Its adherents were hostile to the other Sufi order, the Khafiya, engaging in fights. The rivalry was so intense that some members took it personally, Ma Shaowu, a Jahriyya had a rivalry against Ma Fuxing, a Khafiyya, even though they both worked for the chinese government.

Xidaotang

is a Chinese-Islamic school of thought. It was founded by Ma Qixi (1857–1914), a Chinese Muslim from Lintan in Gansu, at the beginning of the 20th Century[38]. Their teaching of Islamic faith is relatively strongly fused with traditional culture.

It is mainly distributed in Lintan and Hezheng County in northwest China's Gansu Province, and also has followers in the province of Qinghai, the Autonomous Region Xinjiang and the province of Sichuan.[39] It is a Hanafi school of the Sunni tradition similar to Qadim (Gedimu) has included Jahriyya elements.

Its founder, Ma Qixi, was heavily influenced by Chinese culture and religion like Confucianism, and Daoism, taking heavily from the Han Kitab, and he even took cues from Laozi, founder of Daoism.

Khafiya Sufi leaders called the Xidaotang adherents infidels.

Yihewani(Ikhwan)

Yihewani is a Hanafi[40], non-Sufi school of the Sunni tradition. It is also referred to as "new sect" “[41] or "Latest sect"[42]. It is mainly in Qinghai, Ningxia and Gansu (there in Linxia) and distributed in Beijing, Shanghai, Henan, Shandong and Hebei.[43] It was the end of the 19th century when the Dongxiang imam Ma Wanfu (1849–1934) from the village of Guoyuan in Hezhou (now the Dongxiang Autonomous County was founded in Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture, Gansu Province) - who had studied in Mecca and was influenced by the Wahabi movement. After his return to Gansu and he founded the movement with the so-called ten major Ahong.[44] The school rejected the Sufism. It claimed that the rites and ceremonies should not stand in line with the Quran and the Hadith that should be abolished. It is against grave and Murschid (leader / teacher), worship, and advocates against the preaching and da'wa done in Chinese.

Hu Songshan, a former Sufi who converted to Yihewani sect, reformed the Yihewani, making it less hostile to Chinese culture, and integrated modern teaching, and Chinese nationalism into yihewani teachings.

Wahhabi/Salafi

Wahabbism is intensely opposed by Hui chinese Muslims in China, by the Hanafi Sunni Gedimu and Sufi Khafiya and Jahriyya. So much so that even the Yihewani (Ikhwan) chinese sect, which is fundamentalist and was founded by Ma Wanfu who was originally inspired by the Wahhabis, reacted with hostility to Ma Debao and Ma Zhengqing, who attempted to introduce Wahhabism/Salafism as the main form of Islam. They were branded as traitors, and Wahhabi teachings were deemed as heresy by the Yihewani leaders. Ma Debao established a Salafi/Wahhbi order, called the Sailaifengye(Salafi) menhuan in Lanzhou and Linxia, and it is a completely separate sect than other Muslim sects in China.[45]

Ethnic Tensions

The majority of Muslims in Tibet are Hui people. Riots broke out between Muslims and Tibetans over incidents such as bones in soups and prices of balloons. Tibetans attacked Muslim restaurants. During the mid-March riots in 2008, Muslim shopkeepers and their families were badly hurt and some were killed when fires set in their shops spread to upstairs apartments. Due to Tibetan violence against Muslims, many Muslims have stopped wearing the traditional white caps that identify their religion. Many women now wear a hairnet instead of a scarf. Since the nearest mosque was burned down in August, the Muslims pray at home in secret. The Tibetan exile community is reluctant to publicize incidents that might harm the international image of Tibetans. Tibetans also rioted over a game of billiards were a Tibetan and Muslim murdered each other, and over a price of balloons. Hui usually support the Chinese government in its repression of Tibetan separatism.[46]

Tensions with Uyghurs arose because Qing and Republican Chinese authorities used Hui troops and officials to dominate the Uyghurs and crush Uyghur revolts.[47]

Xinjiang's Hui population increased by over 520 percent between 1940 and 1982, an average annual growth of 4,4 percent, while the Uyghur population only grew at 1,7 percent. This dramatic incarese in Hui poplation led inevitably to significant tentions between the Hui and Uyghur muslim populations. Some old Uyghurs in Kashgar remember that the Hui army at the Battle of Kashgar (1934) massacred 2,000 to 8,000 Uyghurs, which causes tension as more Hui moved into Kashgar from other parts of China.[48]

Surnames

Hui people commonly believe that their surnames originated as "Sinified" forms of their foreign Muslim ancestors some time during the Yuan or Ming eras.[49] These are some common surnames used by the Hui ethnic group:

A legend in Ningxia states that four Hui surnames common in the region - Na, Su, La, and Ding - originate with the descendants of one Nasruddin, a son of Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar, who "divided" the ancestor's name (Nasulading, in Chinese) among themselves.[51]

Prominent Hui

Related group names

See also

Further reading

Footnotes

Islam in China

Islam in China.jpg
History of Islam in China

History
Tang Dynasty • Song Dynasty
Yuan Dynasty • Ming Dynasty
Qing Dynasty • Dungan revolt
Panthay rebellion • 1911-Present
Major figures

Lan Yu • Yeheidie'erding
Hui Liangyu • Ma Bufang
Zheng He • Liu Zhi
Haji Noor • Yusuf Ma Dexin
Ma Hualong
Culture

Cuisine • Martial arts
Chinese mosques • Sini
Islamic Association of China
Cities/Regions

Kashgar • Linxia
Ningxia • Xinjiang
Groups

Hui • Uyhgurs • Panthays
Dungan • Kazakhs • Dongxiang
Kyrgyz • Salar • Tajiks
Bonan • Uzbeks • Tatars
Utsul • Tibetans
  1. ↑ China - The Hui Ethnic Group
  2. ↑ Lipman (1997), p. xxiii, or Gladney (1996), pp. 18-20. Besides the Hui people, nine other officially recognized ethnic groups of PRC are considered predominantly Muslim. Those nine groups are defined mainly on linguistic grounds: namely, six groups speaking Turkic languages ( Uyghurs, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, Salars, Uzbeks, and Tatars), two Mongolian-speaking groups (Dongxiang and Bonan), and one Iranian-speaking group (Tajiks).
  3. ↑ Gladney (1996), p. 20.
  4. ↑ Of course, many members of some other Chinese ethnic minorities don't speak their ethnic group's traditional language anymore, and practically no Manchu people speak the Manchu language natively anymore; but even the Manchu language is well attested historically. Meanwhile the ancestors of today's Hui people are thought to have been predominantly native Chinese speakers since no later than the mid- or early Ming Dynasty (Lipman (1997), p. 50
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Gladney (1996), pp. 33-34
  6. ↑ Gladney (1996), pp. 33-34. The Bai-speaking Hui typically claim descent of Hui refugees who fled to Bai areas after the defeat of the Panthay Rebellion, and have assimilated to the Bai culture since
  7. ↑ Gladney (1996), p. 13. Quote: "In China, pork has been the basic meat protein for centuries and regarded by Chairman Mao as 'a national treasure'"
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Gladney (1996), p.18; or Lipman (1997), pp. xxiii-xxiv
  9. ↑ Gladney (2004), p. 161; he refers to Leslie (1986), pp. 195-196
  10. ↑ Dillon (1999), p. 13
  11. ↑ Dillon (1999), p. 15
  12. ↑ Trigault, Nicolas S. J. "China in the Sixteenth Century: The Journals of Mathew Ricci: 1583-1610". English translation by Louis J. Gallagher, S.J. (New York: Random House, Inc. 1953). This is an English translation of the Latin work, De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas based on Matteo Ricci's journals completed by Nicolas Trigault. Pp. 106-107. There is also full Latin text available on Google Books.
  13. ↑ Trigault (trans.) (1953), p. 112. In Samuel Purchas's translation (1625) (Vol. XII, p. 466): "All these Sects the Chinois call, Hoei, the Jewes distinguished by their refusing to eate the sinew or leg; the Saracens, Swines flesh; the Christians, by refusing to feed on round-hoofed beasts, Asses, Horses, Mules, which all both Chinois, Saracens and Jewes doe there feed on." It's not entirely clear what Ricci means by saying that Hui also applied to Christians, as he does not report finding any actual local Christians.
  14. ↑ Trigault (trans.) (1953), p. 375
  15. ↑ Gladney (1996), p. 18; Lipman (1997), p. xxiii
  16. ↑ China Heritage Newsletter
  17. ↑ Gladney (1996), pp. 20-21
  18. ↑ Gladney (1996), pp. 18-19, or Gladney (2004), pp. 161-162
  19. ↑ On the continuing use of Huijiao in Taiwan, see Gladney (1996), pp. 18-19
  20. ↑ Gladney (1996), pp. 12-13
  21. ↑ Lipman (1997), p. 59, based on: Joseph Fletcher, "The Naqshbandiya in Northwest China", in Beatrcie Manz, ed (1995). Studies on Chinese and Islamic Inner Asia. London: Variorum. 
  22. ↑ James Prinsep, "Memoir on Chinese Tartary and Khoten". The Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, No. 48, December 1835. P. 655.On Google Books. Prinsep's article is also available in "The Chinese Repository", 1843, p. 234 On Google Books. A modern (2003) reprint is available, ISBN 1402156316.
  23. ↑ Owen Lattimore, Inner Asian Frontiers of China. Page 183 in the 1951 edition.
  24. ↑ Gladney (1996), pp. 33, 399
  25. ↑ Lipman 1997, p. 24-31
  26. ↑ Lipman 1997, p. 31-35
  27. ↑ Dillon 1999, p. 19-21
  28. ↑ Gladney (1996), pp. 23-24
  29. ↑ Maria Jaschok, Jingjun Shui (2000). The history of women's mosques in Chinese Islam: a mosque of their own. Routledge. p. 74. ISBN 0700713026. http://books.google.com/?id=jV9_YvgUmpsC&pg=PA74&dq=wudai+emperors+preferred+to+marry+persian+women+song+families+marry+women+from+arabia&q=wudai%20emperors%20preferred%20to%20marry%20persian%20women%20song%20families%20marry%20women%20from%20arabia. Retrieved 2010-06-29. 
  30. ↑ Association for Asian studies (Ann Arbor;Michigan) (1976). A-L, Volumes 1-2. Columbia University Press. p. 817. ISBN 0231038011, 9780231038010. http://books.google.com/?id=067On0JgItAC&pg=PA817&dq=ch'ang+fond+persian+girl&q=li%20nu%20married%20an%20arab%20or%20persian%20girl. Retrieved 2010-06-29. 
  31. ↑ Chen, Da-Sheng. "CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS vii. Persian Settlements in Southeastern China during the T'ang, Sung, and Yuan Dynasties". Encyclopedia Iranica. http://www.iranica.com/articles/chinese-iranian-vii. Retrieved 2010-06-28. 
  32. ↑ Joseph Needham (1971). Science and civilisation in China, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. p. 495. ISBN 0521070600, 9780521070607. http://books.google.com/?id=l6TVhvYLaEwC&pg=PA495&dq=li+nu+persian+girl&q=li%20nu%20persian%20girl. Retrieved 2010-06-29. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Allès, Elizabeth. "Notes on some joking relationships between Hui and Han villages in Henan". http://chinaperspectives.revues.org/document649.html. Retrieved 2010-06-28. 
  34. ↑ Jun Jing (1998). The Temple of Memories: History, Power, and Morality in a Chinese Village. Stanford University Press. p. 26. ISBN 0804727570, 9780804727570. http://books.google.com/?id=3leAld7M7p0C&pg=PA128&dq=confucious+lineage+gansu&q=muslim%20woman%20Dachuan%20kong%20lineage. Retrieved 2010-06-29. 
  35. ↑ Zhou, Jing. "New Confucius Genealogy out next year". china.org.cn. http://www.china.org.cn/china/features/content_16696029_3.htm. Retrieved 2010-06-28. 
  36. ↑ 路伟东 (8 Nov 2005). "In Chinese:同治光绪年间陕西人口的损失(Population loss in Shanxi between 1862–1879)". http://yugong.fudan.edu.cn/Article/Info_View.asp?ArticleID=73. Retrieved 2008-12-14. 
  37. ↑ [1]
  38. ↑ Ma Qixi was murdered by Ma Anliang
  39. ↑ chinaculture.org: West Khanqa (gefunden am 27. März 2010)
  40. ↑ One of the four major schools of Islam.
  41. ↑ chinese Xinjiao pai 新教派
  42. ↑ chin. Xinxinjiao 新新教
  43. ↑ Cihai, S. 2002.
  44. ↑ chin. shi da ahong 十大阿訇; das Cihai spricht von zehn großen Hadschis (shi da haji 十大哈吉).
  45. ↑ Michael Dillon (1999). China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects. Richmond: Curzon Press. p. 104. ISBN 0700710264, 9780700710263. http://books.google.com/books?id=hUEswLE4SWUC&pg=PA72&dq=ma+anliang&hl=en&ei=nMIWTOy1JoT6lweJyPGHDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=wahhabism%20ma%20debao&f=false. Retrieved 2010-06-28. 
  46. ↑ Demick, Barbara. "Tibetan-Muslim tensions roil China". Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/2008/jun/23/world/fg-muslims23. Retrieved 2010-06-28. 
  47. ↑ S. Frederick Starr (2004). Xinjiang: China's Muslim borderland. M.E. Sharpe. p. 311. ISBN 0765613182. http://books.google.com/books?id=tfWq65DlGxkC&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=uighurs+hui+tension&source=bl&ots=8TPi-3G9wM&sig=X0MXs0jP0QDNsGBtcOEKDMtkYUM&hl=en&ei=nHc_TK2IJIH58AaHpfSUCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CCsQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=hui%20troops%20to%20dominate%20the%20uyghurs&f=false. Retrieved 2010-06-28. 
  48. ↑ S. Frederick Starr (2004). Xinjiang: China's Muslim borderland. M.E. Sharpe. p. 113. ISBN 0765613182. http://books.google.com/books?id=GXj4a3gss8wC&pg=PA113&lpg=PA113&dq=THis+dramatic+increase+in+the+hui+population+led+inevitably+to+significant+tensions+between+the+hui+and&source=bl&ots=Uo0-lvm3LC&sig=nSX6__Yia6RTdRn19YTIWt8cou4&hl=en&ei=gUpGTJm2EMSclgf0_oDoBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=This%20dramatic%20increase%20in%20the%20hui%20population%20led%20inevitably%20to%20significant%20tensions%20between%20the%20hui%20and&f=false. Retrieved 2010-6-28. 
  49. ↑ Gladney (1996), p. 250
  50. ↑ Dillon (1999), p. 33
  51. ↑ Dillon (1999), p. 22

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